SOJ Neurology and Neuroscience

The cognitive and emotional processes involved in criminal behavior are varied and complex. Decision-making, inhibitory control, emotional processing, empathy and theory of mind, and emotional regulation are some of the key processes involved. Studies using functional neuroimaging have identified distinct patterns of brain activity in regions associated with these processes, providing clues about the mechanisms underlying criminal behavior. For example, differences in activation of the prefrontal cortex and amygdala have been observed in aggressors compared to non- aggressors during tasks involving moral judgment and impulsivity. These findings underscore the importance of neuroscience in investigating the cognitive and emotional processes underlying criminal behavior, offering valuable insights for theory and practice in the fields of criminology and criminal justice.

Keywords: Neuroscience, Decision-making, Emotional regulation, fMRI, Aggressors, Crime

Neurosciences play a crucial role in assessing and understanding individuals who commit crimes, providing insights into the underlying mental and biological processes of delinquent and criminal behavior. Neuroscience aids in investigating cognitive processes such as decision-making and inhibitory control, as well as emotional processing, which are implicated in these more impulsive, violent, and criminal behaviors. In recent years, there has been a significant increase in interest and research on the neuroscience of criminal behavior, resulting in significant strides and breakthroughs in understanding the cognitive and emotional processes underlying individuals who commit crimes. The convergence of neuroscience and criminology has led to various studies^1-3 and debates on the biological and neural bases of criminal behavior, promoting a deeper understanding of the motivations, impulses, and cognitive dysfunctions associated with delinquency and crime. Therefore, while some individuals may see crime as a quick way to gain profits or achieve personal goals, the negative consequences associated with criminal behavior often outweigh any perceived benefits. Ultimately, crime is not a sustainable or ethical option, and compliance with the law is fundamental to individual and social stability and well-being.

And what are the mental structures involved?

The cognitive and emotional processes implicated in criminal behavior are varied and complex. Here are some of the key cognitive and emotional processes involved.

Decision-making: The ability to make rational and thoughtful decisions is fundamental to socially adaptive behavior. However, individuals engaged in criminal behaviors may exhibit difficulties in decision-making, such as a tendency to seek immediate gratification, disregarding the long-term consequences of their actions.^4,5

Inhibitory control: Inhibitory control refers to the ability to control impulses and inappropriate behaviors. Deficiencies in inhibitory control can lead to impulsive and aggressive behaviors, characteristic of many individuals involved in crimes.¹

Emotional processing: Emotional processing involves the ability to recognize, interpret, and respond appropriately to one's own and others' emotions. Difficulties in emotional processing can lead to exaggerated or inappropriate responses to emotional situations, contributing to violent or criminal behaviors.⁶

Empathy and theory of mind: Empathy is the ability to understand and share the feelings of others, while Theory of Mind refers to the ability to attribute mental states to others and understand their intentions.^7,8 Difficulties with empathy and Theory of Mind can lead to a lack of consideration for others and an inability to anticipate the emotional consequences of their actions.

Emotional regulation: Emotional regulation involves the ability to modulate and control one's own emotions in response to environmental stimuli. Difficulties in emotional regulation can result in outbursts of anger, impulsive behaviors, and difficulty coping with stress, all of which can contribute to criminal behaviors.^6,9

It is important to recognize that criminal behavior often arises from a complex interaction of biological, psychological, social, and environmental factors, and different individuals may exhibit varied patterns of cognitive and emotional dysfunctions that contribute to their involvement in criminal activities.^5,10

Some functional neuroimaging (fMRI) studies^3,11,12 have identified differences in brain activation during tasks involving moral decisions in aggressive individuals compared to non-aggressive ones. These differences may suggest deficiencies in areas such as the prefrontal cortex (The prefrontal cortex is a brain region located in the frontal lobe's frontal part. Due to its wide range of functions, the prefrontal cortex is crucial for decision-making, emotional regulation, behavioral control, and adaptation to constantly changing environments.

Changes in prefrontal cortex functioning may be associated with various neuropsychiatric conditions such as mood disorders, anxiety disorders, attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and impulse control disorders.¹³ Additionally, dysfunctions in the prefrontal cortex may also be related to impulsive, aggressive, and criminal behaviors), involved in executive control, and the amygdala (The amygdala is a brain structure located in the medial temporal region of the brain, near the hippocampus. It is an essential part of the limbic system, which plays a central role in emotional processing and response to stress), related to emotional processing.

The relationship between the amygdala and aggressive behavior is complex and multifaceted. While the amygdala plays a fundamental role in emotional processing, including the response to fear and stress, its involvement in the expression of aggressive behaviors is influenced by a variety of factors, including genetics, environment, and life experiences.^10,11 Thus, we highlight:

Detection of threatening stimuli - Where the amygdala plays a central role in detecting stimuli that are perceived as threatening. When the amygdala perceives a stimulus as threatening, it can trigger physiological and behavioral responses, including the fight or flight response.¹⁴ If this response is exaggerated or dysregulated, it can lead to aggressive behaviors in situations that do not represent a real threat. Emotional processing - Here the amygdala is involved in the interpretation and processing of emotions, including anger and hostility. If the amygdala is hyperactive or dysregulated, this can lead to intense emotional responses, which in turn may manifest as aggressive and violent behavior.

Learning and emotional memory - The amygdala plays an important role in emotional learning, helping to associate specific stimuli with past emotional experiences. If a person learns to associate certain situations or stimuli with negative experiences, this may increase the likelihood of aggressive behaviors in similar situations in the future.

Emotional regulation - The amygdala interacts with other regions of the brain involved in emotional regulation, such as the prefrontal cortex. If this regulation is compromised, whether due to dysfunctions in the amygdala or other areas of the brain, it can result in difficulties in controlling aggressive impulses and responding adaptively to challenging situations.

It is important to emphasize that the relationship between the amygdala and aggressive behavior is not deterministic, meaning that amygdala activation does not automatically guarantee an aggressive response, and other contextual and individual factors play an important role in behavior expression. Research also suggests that other brain areas, such as the prefrontal cortex, play a crucial role in modulating and inhibiting aggressive behaviors, highlighting the complexity of the neural circuit underlying aggressive behavior.¹⁵ Through advanced neuroimaging techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), electroencephalography (EEG), and positron emission tomography (PET), studies^1,5,16 have been able to closely examine brain activity in individuals engaged in impulsive, violent, and criminal behaviors. These studies have identified distinct patterns of brain activity in regions associated with cognitive and emotional processes, providing insights into the mechanisms underlying criminal behavior. For example, studies using fMRI have demonstrated differences in activation of the prefrontal cortex, a brain region involved in executive control and decision-making, between aggressors and non-aggressors during tasks involving moral judgment and impulsivity.³ These results underscore the importance of cognitive processes such as inhibitory control, decision-making, and emotional processing in the manifestation of criminal behavior. It is worth noting the complexity of the criminal phenomenon and the need for a multidisciplinary approach that integrates neuroscience, psychology, criminology, and other related disciplines.

The various studies using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to investigate patterns of brain activity during decision-making tasks in violent offenders compared to non-offenders reveal reduced activation of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex in offenders, suggesting difficulties in evaluating consequences and emotional regulation during moral decision-making.⁹ Followed a sample of adolescents, examining the relationship between empathy and involvement in delinquent behaviors. Using neuroimaging and behavioral measures, the authors found that adolescents with lower amygdala activation in response to emotional stimuli exhibited a greater propensity for delinquent behaviors over time, suggesting a role of emotional regulation in preventing delinquency.¹⁷ Analyzed data from structural neuroimaging studies to investigate differences in brain structure between individuals with psychopathy and healthy controls. The results indicated a significant reduction in gray matter volume in regions such as the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the anterior insula in individuals with psychopathy, suggesting neuroanatomical alterations associated with lack of empathy and impulsive behavior.

These data highlight the importance of neuroscience and its implication for investigating the cognitive and emotional processes underlying criminal behavior, providing valuable insights that can inform both theory and practice in the field of criminology and criminal justice. Ultimately, all these investigations underscore and reinforce the complexity and mystery of the human mind, but they also demonstrate how neuroscience is helping to unravel the secrets behind criminal behavior. These findings have the potential to promote more effective public policies and intervention programs that seek to understand and correct the wayward paths of those who have lost their way. Thus, understanding the biological bases of criminal behavior can inform the development of more effective interventions for the prevention and rehabilitation of offenders. This may include cognitive and pharmacological therapies aimed at modifying patterns of brain activity associated with more deviant behaviors. For example, psychoeducational therapies based on cognitive-behavioral techniques could be adapted to specifically address dysfunctional thinking patterns associated with criminal behavior. These therapies can help individuals recognize and modify distorted thinking patterns, develop problem-solving skills, and learn alternative strategies for dealing with conflicts and risky situations. Additionally, pharmacological interventions can also play an important role. The identification of specific patterns of brain activity associated with criminal behavior may pave the way for the development of drugs aimed at modulating these patterns. For example, medications targeting neurotransmitters such as dopamine, serotonin, or norepinephrine may help reduce impulsivity, aggression, or other dysfunctional behaviors associated with crime.¹⁰ By targeting these interventions precisely based on an understanding of the biological bases of criminal behavior, professionals can increase the effectiveness of prevention and rehabilitation programs. This can not only help reduce the occurrence of crimes but also offer a second chance to individuals who have committed offenses, promoting their reintegration into society in a more humane, productive, and healthy manner.

A meta-analysis study of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) on decision- making and emotional regulation in aggressors’ sheds light on the intricate interplay between cognitive and emotional processes underlying criminal behavior. The findings reveal distinct patterns of brain activity in regions associated with decision-making, inhibitory control, emotional processing, empathy, and emotional regulation, offering valuable insights into the mechanisms driving criminal behavior. key cognitive processes implicated in criminal behavior include decision-making, inhibitory control, emotional processing, empathy, and theory of mind. Aggressors often exhibit difficulties in these areas, such as impulsivity, lack of empathy, and exaggerated emotional responses, which contribute to their involvement in criminal activities. Functional neuroimaging studies have identified differences in brain activation between aggressors and non-aggressors, particularly in regions like the prefrontal cortex and amygdala, highlighting their roles in executive control and emotional processing, respectively.

The relationship between amygdala activation and aggressive behavior is multifaceted, involving its role in detecting threatening stimuli, emotional processing, learning, and emotional memory. However, amygdala activation alone does not determine aggressive responses, as contextual and individual factors also play significant roles. Moreover, other brain areas like the prefrontal cortex modulate and inhibit aggressive behaviors, emphasizing the complexity of the neural circuitry underlying criminal behavior. Studies utilizing fMRI have revealed reduced activation of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex in offenders during moral decision-making tasks, suggesting difficulties in evaluating consequences and emotional regulation. Additionally, research has shown associations between lower amygdala activation and propensity for delinquent behaviors, as well as neuroanatomical alterations in individuals with psychopathy, indicating deficits in empathy and impulse control. These findings underscore the importance of neuroscience in understanding the biological bases of criminal behavior, offering insights that can inform both theoretical frameworks and practical interventions in criminology and criminal justice. By targeting interventions based on an understanding of the underlying neural mechanisms, such as cognitive-behavioral therapies and pharmacological interventions, professionals can enhance the effectiveness of prevention and rehabilitation programs, ultimately promoting social stability and individual well-being.

None.

This Mini Review received no external funding.

Regarding the publication of this article, the author declares that he has no conflict of interest.

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